Analysis ofthe play “Spring Awakening” by Frank Wedekind Essay

Frank Wedekind’s play Spring Awakening represents an adult’s reflection on childhood, the repercussions of ignorance, and the consequence of inhibiting the spread of knowledge to those without it. Although very brief and lacking in extreme detail, this work has a profound aura; it leaves the reader with thoughts of how things could have resolved themselves better had key characters acted differently. It also gives a sense of the sanctity of youth and the dangers of growing up too fast. When we are forced to learn on our own, without the guidance of those who we desperately need it from, do we end up in irreversible positions that we never could have fathomed in the first place? This play gives definitive answers to all the questions surrounding the coming of age, the Spring Awakening. Looking at childhood (namely adolescence), from both an outside perspective and inside, reveals just how differently children and adults view the world. The children in this play see the world as full of discoveries that need to be made in order to grow up. In addition, they don’t necessarily want to find out all these things on their own. The guidance of the adult figures, e.g. teachers and parents, is sorely missed by the children in the story. When trying to learn where children come from, the character Wendla naturally turns to her mother. Rather than even attempt to answer her daughter’s question, Frau Bergman immediately succumbs to the awkwardness of the situation and delivers a short, circumventing monologue. It is an attempt to deter her daughter, not to enlighten her. It is apparent to the children that they cannot look to their parents for help, and so they must learn on their own. The teachers in the story are no better. Upon the suicide of one of the schoolboys, it is found that a certain one of his friends has supplied him with a complete manual of the human reproductive system. The reaction on the part of the schoolmasters and teachers is to expel the student immediately. A meeting between the student, Melchior, and the teachers reveals that the teachers have no interest in hearing what he has to say. The subject of human sexuality is simply too explicit to be discussed by non-adults, regardless of its level of accuracy on the part of the child. The final result is that even though he has done nothing wrong, indeed, he has figured  sex out for himself, Melchior is sent to a reformatory. It seems that the children are trapped in a cycle of ignorance and punishment. They are given no help by the ones they trust, and when they figure anything out on their own, they are chastised for being essentially â€Å"out of line.† Their only way to enlightenment lies in self-discovery and consequent punishment. However, the punishment some of them receive is simply too great for anyone of such an age. The harshest reality of the entire story lies in Wendla. After her mother’s failure to share any knowledge with her, she is raped by Melchior. However, she was told that she needed to love a man more deeply than she was capable of in order to have a child. She has no idea that she is with child, and once again her mother fails to help her. Her mother lies to her once more, this time insisting that she has anemia. Finally, though, when it no longer matters, her mother tells her that she is pregnant. Shortly after, Wendla is killed by a failed abortion. Her life was the price she had to pay in order to find the answer to the one question she wanted to know more than anything. By keeping her daughter in the dark, Frau Bergman has destroyed what should be most important to her. In addition, she has stolen the chance for Wendla to ever grow up. The process of growing, the sacrament of the naivete that only children posses, has completely ended for Wendla. That is something that can never be replaced, and it is also something for which one can never be forgiven. Knowledge is meant to be spread. Nobody is meant to be left ignorant of the world around them. This play shows that ignorance is the most powerful tool we have to aid in our own demise.

The View From The Airplane Window

As often as possible, I try to get a window seat when I’m traveling. Certainly anything beats the dreaded middle seat, and crawling over other people when you need to stretch your legs can be a pain, but that window seat has the best thing on board—a window. A recent article by Peter Ferry on World Hum, â€Å"Out the Airplane Window,† describes some of the most stunning moments he’s had as an observer through the window of a commercial aircraft. When I think back on some of the flights I’ve taken, it’s not the movies on that teeny little screen that are memorable.It’s the views of the world below me that stay in my mind, like the time we passed over the Great Blue Hole, off the coast of Belize. I’d always imagined it much larger, but that didn’t diminish the beauty of the perfect deep blue circle surrounded by gem-toned Caribbean water just below my window. Once, I got an aerial tour of Yosemite National Park on the way h ome to San Francisco. As a California native, I’d visited Yosemite countless times, but the priceless view from above was something I’d never seen—other than on TV.We may never be able to visit all the places we see out the airplane window, but just seeing them as we pass over is far better than seeing them on screen. And it adds to the travel experience in counting not just the destination, but also the journey as important. I’ll always remember gazing out from a small propeller plane as I left the Peruvian Amazon behind me on my way to Cuzco. The bark-colored water lay in lazy loops among the lush emerald forest like a monstrous serpent. Ahead, the Andes formed a snow-capped wall.I don’t think there will ever be a movie that will make me feel like I did at that moment. Traveling on an airplane never fails to amaze me. Well, that is if I manage to get a seat by the window. Why? I get to see all sorts of landscapes as the plane lifts off, cruises a bove the rest of the world for hours, and I always believe there’s always something beautiful out at the window, waiting to be discovered. It could be the enchanting sunset, the vast mountains and terrains, or the buzzing city scene with its intricate transport network woven into society. ï » ¿The View From The Airplane Window As often as possible, I try to get a window seat when I’m traveling. Certainly anything beats the dreaded middle seat, and crawling over other people when you need to stretch your legs can be a pain, but that window seat has the best thing on board—a window. A recent article by Peter Ferry on World Hum, â€Å"Out the Airplane Window,† describes some of the most stunning moments he’s had as an observer through the window of a commercial aircraft. When I think back on some of the flights I’ve taken, it’s not the movies on that teeny little screen that are memorable.It’s the views of the world below me that stay in my mind, like the time we passed over the Great Blue Hole, off the coast of Belize. I’d always imagined it much larger, but that didn’t diminish the beauty of the perfect deep blue circle surrounded by gem-toned Caribbean water just below my window. Once, I got an aerial tour of Yosemite National Park on the way h ome to San Francisco. As a California native, I’d visited Yosemite countless times, but the priceless view from above was something I’d never seen—other than on TV.We may never be able to visit all the places we see out the airplane window, but just seeing them as we pass over is far better than seeing them on screen. And it adds to the travel experience in counting not just the destination, but also the journey as important. I’ll always remember gazing out from a small propeller plane as I left the Peruvian Amazon behind me on my way to Cuzco. The bark-colored water lay in lazy loops among the lush emerald forest like a monstrous serpent. Ahead, the Andes formed a snow-capped wall.I don’t think there will ever be a movie that will make me feel like I did at that moment. Traveling on an airplane never fails to amaze me. Well, that is if I manage to get a seat by the window. Why? I get to see all sorts of landscapes as the plane lifts off, cruises a bove the rest of the world for hours, and I always believe there’s always something beautiful out at the window, waiting to be discovered. It could be the enchanting sunset, the vast mountains and terrains, or the buzzing city scene with its intricate transport network woven into society.

The Monkey’s Paw: the Light Footprint of British History

The Monkey's Paw: The Light Footprint of British History by M. Lutfi / 1104391 Written in 1906, â€Å"The Monkey's Paw† is a story about Whites' family who received a dried â€Å"monkey's paw†, dubbed as a magical item which will grant their three wishes, from one of their friend, Sergeant-Major Morris. Taking it as a joke, they wished for two hundred pounds, which they later get in the expense of the death of their son, Herbert. Hopeless, they then wished for their son to come back into life, only to realize that those wish won't become true.This story is particularly interesting because the author chose to portray the life of an average English family life, and how they deal with issues such as death of a family member, while still talking about the larger issues in the Victorian age, such as Industrial Revolution, the belief to the spiritual or mythical deity, and cultural issues related to the imperialism. In the start of this story, the reader is presented with the visit of Sergeant-Major Morris to the Whites' family villa, with a â€Å"souvenir† which happened to be a â€Å"magic† monkey's paw from India.After this scene, readers can infer that there's a cultural exchange from the colonized country (as India is one of the country that was colonized by England). The â€Å"magic† monkey paw might be a souvenir or a charm given by locals – at that age, giving a charm to people going overseas was considered to be a symbol of tribute. By accepting the paw, Sergeant-Major Morris successfully brought a piece of Indian culture relic to the UK, and it also could be read as the writer's attempt to say that behind the colonialism, there's some hope of peace and understanding left.Then the story moves forward to the act in which they doubted the effect of the charm. The act could be read as an attempt to introduce how people tend to question the spiritual belief system. In the age where new ideas, founding in science, and inn ovations were praised a lot, people started to question everything – how things work, how the earth functions, and so on. Peoples tend to believe things when they see the â€Å"proof†, especially when the social situation also pledged uncertainty. After they wished to the monkey's paw, they had their wish come true, but in the expense of their son passed away.If the readers read critically to the story, they can find two issues being addressed here by the writer; how one's life revolves, and another bigger issue: the darker side of Industrial Revolution. From the aforementioned scene, the writer hides the message about how one's life revolve; we gain one thing in our life, then we also lose another. You can't be greedy and wish for everything in this life to be picture-perfect; it's a given. This way, the writer addressed, and criticized, eloquently the greediness of imperialists. Another thing to note from this scene is that the Industrial Revolution is not all that f riendly to the humanity.The movement, which starts in the middle of 19th century and ends before World War, is a movement which focused to change the manufacturing process from manual to automatic, using machines to achieve such goal. However, it caused significant damage to the society and labor issues is not an exception. Lots of people became victim; either became dead, lost their job, or got below-average wages. In this story, the cruelness of Industrial Revolution is depicted subtly, but it did leave an impression to the readers. The story reached its end by the couple wishing their son come back into life to the monkey's paw, but their wish was unfulfilled.In this scene, it can be concurred that the writer's trying to remind people to remain rational when times went rough – doing irrational things won't help the situation at all, as depicted in this scene. â€Å"The Monkey's Paw† is a good read for those interested in the British history. The story flows nicely, the character was depicted vividly, and the diction is not too hard to understand. The issues discussed here are also explained in a way that won't make anyone frown, even though the story talks about one of the darkest part of the world history.

Performnce management (developing methods of performance apraisal) Essay

Performnce management (developing methods of performance apraisal) - Essay Example Performance appraisal can be described as a formal and systematic way of identifying, observing as well as measuring the strengths and weaknesses of the employees in their job (Swanepoel, 1998). The primary goal of performance appraisal is concerned with improving the performance of the individuals as well as the organisation as a whole so that the desired goals can be easily attained. The system of performance appraisal is mainly concerned with gathering information about the performance of different individuals so as to be in a position to make a decision with regards to promotion of other people while at the same time developing and training those who lag behind in order to improve their performance (Mullins, 2010). It can also be seen that a performance appraisal system is designed to provide the managers with information that can be used to make necessary pay adjustments since it is widely believed that employees with outstanding and exceptional performance standards should be r ewarded with pay increases so as to motivate them. In most cases, performance appraisal is carried over a certain period of time where the employees are given a certain task to perform in a bid to establish their level of competence. Information about the challenges they have faced is gathered as well as the aspects they found simple to perform. In order to perform this task, the most effective employee performance appraisal tool that can be used is to give the employees short reflective written tests that are designed to explore their views and perceptions towards their work. In order to do this, it is imperative to assign the employees a certain task that ought to be accomplished over a certain period of time. The manger has to design a set of self reflective questions that can be answered in short answers. These questions should be related to the task that has been performed and they help to establish the level of competence of the individual in as far as this job task is concern ed. The method of testing the capability of the employees in performing a certain task is very effective since they are compelled to give objective answers that are relevant to the experience they would have gained through the assigned task. The other method that could be used is a questionnaire. However, the disadvantage of this method is that the responses are subjective since they do not provide a deep insight about a person’s perceptions towards a certain job activity. The test method is effective in that a person would be given the opportunity to narrate the real situation he or she has encountered. Chances of objectivity are high given that the individual would be in a position to give personal opinions and ideas towards something. These views can be used to measure against the standard expectations in the organization. If an employee shows that he or she has weaknesses in certain areas, this information can then be used to improve those weaknesses so that his overall p erformance can be improved. The employees who display exceptional knowledge and skills in the tasks assigned to them can be considered for promotion by the management. They can also be considered for high pay adjustments so as to motivate them in order to continue putting optimum effort in their performance. The problem of poor performance

Digital signatures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5500 words

Digital signatures - Essay Example Moreover, the cases of e-commerce crimes are rising day by day. In this scenario, it becomes necessary for the organizations to take some effective steps to uphold the security of their e-commerce activities. Thus, digital signature is a suitable technique for saving customers from identity theft and various others frauds. This report presents a detailed analysis of digital signature. The aim of this research is to analyze the role of digital signature in forming e-commerce security. Business sector is by no means an exemption to internet mania. Since, with the passage of time, the online business is turning out to be an exhortation. The online business means that people can purchase and pay from home and even while sitting in their bedroom through an internet equipped PC or laptop. The global wave of information technologies (ITs) development and implementation has turned out to be a driving force in approximately every part of human job. In this scenario, the internet that is a main element of this global wave has been transformed into a double-edged weapon providing a lot of opportunities, facilities, tools, and capabilities to individuals and corporations, on the other hand as well bringing with it a considerably increased information security and privacy risks (Salifu, 2008). As the electronic methods of business expands rapidly throughout the world, security and integrity concerns turn out to be sensitive. Moreover, at the present, the customer satisfactio n and trust in internet transactions and the security measures implemented by online businesses are considered to be insignificant and perhaps the main limit in the acceptance of internet business practices (Dandapani, 2008). Electronic commerce or e-commerce refers to conducting both internal and external business activities over the internet, intranets, and extranets. In addition, e-commerce consists

Corporate HR Policy Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Corporate HR Policy - Term Paper Example Bobby’s boss was wrong because he did not truly consider Bobby for the promotion. The company’s preference was to fill in positions by externally recruiting. Corporate HR policy of promoting from within can very beneficial for an organization. â€Å"Often internal or current employees can make the best available candidates because they are already familiar with your company and successful within your culture† (Green, 2007). Another benefit of promoting from within is lower recruiting costs since the candidate is chosen from a limited pool of people that already work for the company. Organizations do not have to spend money advertising job openings when internal recruiting is utilized. The use of internal recruitment positively contributes towards the employee retention rate of the company. Employees that work in a culture in which promotion opportunities are readily available are motivated to perform at a superior level. The risk of an outside candidate not fitting in with the corporate culture of a firm is eliminated by promoting your own employees. When a person is promoted from within into a managerial position the employees are more accepting of their new leader. A good HR strategy is to identify employees with potential and place them in a career advancement track. A few ways that the companies can develop the skills and capabilities of the workers is through job rotation, seminars, training, online training, and educational opportunities. Fast Company made a blunder in their cover story criticizing the human resource profession. The advertisement on the cover of the magazine was violent, bloody, and completely tasteless. The images were similar to those you would see in the advertisement of a horror movie. This mistake was made possible due to a lack of internal control to verify the quality of the work of the writers.  

To what extent do advertisements reinforce female gender stereotypes Essay

To what extent do advertisements reinforce female gender stereotypes - Essay Example This "To what extent do advertisements reinforce female gender stereotypes?" essay outlines the image of women gender in the ads. The historic stereotyping of women was based on portraying this gender as weak, shy, beautiful, caring, sensitive and quiet individuals. They were shown as beauty objects with high respect. Most of the pictures used for advertisements were of plain, expressionless faces with graceful but least exposing dressing. Those advertisements were based on the idea that women are objects that must be looked at but not listened to. However, in recent years, such depiction of women is inexistent. Women are now portrayed as bold, sexy, stylish and strong. Most of the advertisements capture them facing the camera with no expression of shyness or confusion on their faces. A number of advertisements have also shown a remarkable change in women appearance by portraying women adopting male behaviors, dressing, hairstyle and other traits. Redken advertisement is an example o f such a portrayal where the female model has kept the hairstyle same as the male model. This has further changed the way women are viewed as in the world. Here it can be said that the women by advertisements are portraying an image in which they are shown more strong and manly. Through these advertisements it is stereotyped that women can compete with men in any given field and has worked towards their image in the world. These type of advertisements would also allow the female counterparts to realize how strong and important they are in the world.

EMBA 560 Executive position week 1 discussion 1 Essay

EMBA 560 Executive position week 1 discussion 1 - Essay Example Not too long afterward, traditional consensus shifted from the belief of a predestined leader to the idea that there were natural-born leaders – that is, individuals who have the natural traits that are associated with good leaders. The concept of ‘leadership’ shifted at this point, from the view that leaders were great people who defended their people during wartime, to the concept of leaders who competently acted as stewards of their people. Leaders were thought to be virtuous, gifted, and had a charismatic appeal that won over people’s loyalty and adulation. The problem with the leadership traits theory is that the good leader eventually was though to possess all the possible positive qualities (and none of the negative qualities), which is an impossible proposition (Ledlow & Coppola, 2010). With the coming of scientific management, it became generally accepted that leaders can be trained and developed. This is the skills approach, indicating that people who are trained at leadership skills (technical, human relations, and conceptual) can become good leaders. Simultaneous with this is the leadership style theory, which categorizes a leader as autocratic, democratic, charismatic, bureaucratic, laissez-faire, and a host of other styles. While leadership skills are the capabilities with which an individual functions in the duties of leadership, leadership styles pertains to how the leader relates to his followers. Insofar as ‘skills’ are viewed as talents, then it may be said that talents help make a leader, although not to the exclusion of other factors. More recently, leadership has been viewed as falling into two general categories – transactional and transformational. A transactional leader deals with followers on a transaction basis, that is, if the follower does what is expected, he gets a reward. A transformational leader, though, brings lasting change to his followers so that they are motivated to perform a ccording to expectation. References: Bass, B M & Bass, R (2009) The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications, Fourth edition. New York, NY: Free Press, Simon & Schuster, Inc. Ledlow, G R & Coppola, M N (2010) Leadership for Health Professionals: Theory, Skills and Applications. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc Waite, M R (2008) Fire Service Leadership: Theories and Practices. International Association of Fire Chiefs. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc. 2. In your opinion and experience, what do you believe to be the most important role / duty of an executive. Off the cuff, I (and many others, I would imagine) would feel that the most important role of an executive would be to reach the goal (of the organization) and to maintain the peace. Ultimately, that is the goal of all leaders, particularly in the matter of attaining the objective. That would be fine in the case of short-term projects, where there is a singular objec tive, a definite start and end, and a fixed lifespan. In a continuing undertaking, however, the objective is recurring and people in the organization are made to work together over a long – theoretically an infinite – period of time. In this case, leadership takes on a more profound role, that of motivator for his many followers. From my experience, the best way for a leader to motivate his/her followers is not only to articulate a goal for them, but to provide them with a vision that they can assimilate in their

Arab spring Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Arab spring - Annotated Bibliography Example The authors argue that todays students require an altogether different training than the students who preceded them. They say that the 21st Century education is of low standard, The article analyse a person desires yearnings, academics, disposition, values, convictions, social life, attitude and governmental issues, this book paints a faultless representation of todays people. The book offers advice on how to handle current students. The authors of the article Tarek al-Tayeb Mohamed Bouazizi, a Tunisian road seller who sets himself ablaze on 17 December 2010, in challenge of the appropriation of his wares and the badgering and mortification that he reported was delivered on him by a metropolitan authority and her helpers. His protest turned into an impetus for the Tunisian Revolution and the more extensive Arab Spring, actuating shows and mobs all around Tunisia in dissent of social and political issues in the nation. General societys resentment and roughness strengthened emulating Bouazizis passing, heading then-President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali to venture down on 14 January 2011, following 23 years in power. This source was useful because it inspired protests in several other Arab countries, plus several non-Arab countries. The young Tunisian man acts as a role model in fight for human rights and freedoms. According to this article The Worlds Muslims: Unity and Diversity, Pew Forum estimates that 87-90% of the world’s Muslims are Sunnis, while 10-13% are Shias. This new study of Muslims by Pew explores the religious practices and beliefs of the world’s 1.6 billion Muslims. While there is broad agreement on core tenets of Islam, the study also finds that Muslims differs significantly on the importance of religion in their lives and on the groups and practices they accept as part of Islam. The survey was conducted in 39 countries or territories with substantial Muslim populations and

Main Death Camp in 1942 Essay Example for Free

Main Death Camp in 1942 Essay Firstly, until mid-1943, the main death camps were camps similar to Sobibor, Belzec, and Treblinka. However, when all of the ‘non desirables’ had been liquidated, these camps shut down. Death camps were only meant to be a temporary place, and once their job was completed, they would quickly be dismantled. Auschwitz was different. It incorporated a Labour camp – so was designed for a much longer use than its’ contenders. The fact that it was one of the few camps that wasn’t temporary, meant that Jews from other areas of Europe – not just from nearby districts were sent to Auschwitz to be dealt with accordingly. This made Auschwitz’s population grow to way beyond the amount it was originally designed to hold around 11,000. However, in August 1944, the population was a massive 105,168. Secondly, the camp also had other uses, apart from a death camp. Auschwitz I was the base camp, in which the whole of Auschwitz-Birkenau was operated from, which also incorporated a few gas chambers, and prison cells. Auschwitz II-Birkenau was the main death camp, where the majority of the 1.5-2 million Jews were killed. Auschwitz II also incorporated a separate camp for Roma and Ukrainian Gypsies, where Gypsies were sent from Ghettos such as Lodz, and from countries in the Nazi Empire. Auschwitz III was the main Labour camp, where Jews and other ‘less desirables’ were held and worked for the Reich. Auschwitz also had 45 sub-camps, in the surrounding areas. These sub-camps were concentration camps, where ‘non desirables’ were held until they were moved to Auschwitz itself. The vast array of camps in Auschwitz made it the main extermination camp, as it was a lot easier sending the ‘non desirables’ to Auschwitz via train, that to build several hundred temporary Extermination camps. Lastly, Himmler ordered for the camp to increase in size, saying the existing extermination centres in the east are not sufficient to cope with an operation on such a scale. The war emphasised the quickly progressed the killings in the Death camps, and Himmler knew that there were no camps big enough to ‘deal’ with the ‘undesirables’ on an industrial level. Auschwitz by this time was quite a small camp, with good railway links to Germany and  the rest of Poland. During this time, Himmler also, said that Auschwitz should be the main camp for the proposed â€Å"Final Solutions†. In conclusion, the main reason why Auschwitz was the main Death Camp was due to the fact that Auschwitz was one of the few permanent ‘killing stations’. This meant that ‘undesirables’ were sent there from all over Europe, and overpopulated the camp. This resulted in the camp increasing in size, and overall, having over seven gas chambers and crematoriums.

P2 Cycle in WDM Networks

P2 Cycle in WDM Networks P2-CYCLE IN WDM NETWORKS M.DILEEP Smt K .APARNA Abstract The Failure Independent Path Protection (FIPP) p cycle is efficient scheme. If failure occurs in pre configured cycle it is protection is reconfigured between those two nodes. In this paper we use Parasitic Protection Links (PPL). PPL’s are p-cycles with have attached links. PPL’s are used to protect the not only failure nodes but it connected to PPL to cycle. P2 cycle is known as p cycle with parasitic protection links. We address The P2 cycle in mesh networks can be analysed by using single link failure. We further propose two P2-cycle based heuristic algorithms, Strict Routing Protection (SRP) and Flexible Routing Protection (FRP), to address the dynamic traffic case. In the dynamic case, both SRP and FRP outperform FIPP p-cycle schemes in terms of blocking probability in most scenarios considered. In general, the P2-cycle protection scheme outperforms the p-cycle based in terms of capacity efficiencies which being slightly slower in terms of traffic recovery speed. Key words: Parasitic Protection Links (PPL), Strict Routing Protection (SRP), Flexible Routing Protection (FRP). I. INTRODUCTION Network survivability, defined as the Continuous operations of network are performed in case failure occurred in the network [3]. In generally optical networks carry information in terabytes. A failure in network causes lot of loss of data. Ring based networks can easily come due to their structure and fast recovery management. In ring based it takes 50-60ms but it gives capacity redundancy high. As mesh based networks emerged, more capacity efficient protection schemes were proposed which allow backup capacity sharing. These schemes are into three categories: link-based, segment-based and path-based [29]. Link-based protection schemes produce the fast traffic recovery speed but suffer from the worst resource efficiency . Best resource efficiency is achieved by path based protection scheme. Shared Backup Path Protection (SBPP) is one of the path protection schemes. it is high capacity. upon a network failure. It takes long time o recover from traffic. Segment based protection schemes lie between the link-based and path-based schemes, and offer a better combination of bandwidth efficiency and recovery time. Path-based protection schemes usually achieve the best resource efficiency. Among them, a path protection scheme, namely, Shared Backup Path Protection (SBPP), was shown to be the most capacity efficient protection scheme [8]. However, it suffers from long traffic recovery time upon a network failure. Segment based protection schemes lie between the link-based and path-based schemes, and offer a better combination of bandwidth efficiency and recovery time . The pre-configured protection cycle is known as p-cycle, combines the good qualities of mesh and ring based protection schemes and achieves the recovery speed of ring- based with the capacity efficiency of mesh protection. P-cycle has been proven theoretically to be the most efficient pre-configured protection scheme in terms of capacity efficiency and recovery speed . II. Dynamic Traffic Scenarios In dynamic traffic without the prior knowledge of arrival time of future requests. Due to the pre-configuration property of traditional p-cycles, it is extremely difficult to re- provision all the protection cycles whenever a new session arrives in order to minimize overall cost. Each provisioning takes large computation cost and complex network reconfiguration. Therefore, most of the work in the literature assume that established p-cycles should not vary with time or traffic. The authors in proposed three different routing algorithms along with link-based p-cycle protection scheme to deal with dynamic traffic. The results indicate that the proposed p-cycle based design performs better than SBPP in dense networks but worse in sparse networks. Protected Working Capacity Envelopes (PWCE) is another method to address dynamic traffic scenarios. It divides the entire network into two partitions: working and protection. Both static and dynamic traffic can be accommodated as long as the tot al traffic do not exceed the limit of working envelopes. Although some decent results have been shown in the literature, p-cycles still have such intrinsic weakness in dealing with dynamic traffic. If an incoming session whose end nodes do not lie on any cycle, it cannot be protected and a new cycle has to be constructed to protect this session, or the existing cycles must be reconfigured. An example shown in Figure 4.2 illustrates such weakness and also reveals the advantage of P2-cycles. In Fig. 4.2(a), session1 has been provisioned and protected by cycle C1(ECBFE). As session 2 arrives, the primary path of session 2 is provisioned as P2(ABCD). Under FIPP p-cycle scheme, cycle C1 cannot protect it and thus a new cycle C2(ABCDEFA) is constructed to protect it as shown in Fig.4.2(b). However, instead of building a new cycle, using P2-cycle approach we can add two PPLs (A,F) and (D,E) to connect the end nodes of P2 such that C1 can also provide a protection segment (AFED) for P2 as shown in Fig.4.2(c). Therefore, both sessions are protected by a P2-cycle with much less cost. Fig 1: P2-cycle deals With Dynamic Traffic III. Problem Statement In dynamic traffic scenarios, a WDM mesh network is given with network resources, such as the maximum number of wavelengths and the cost on each span. Each traffic request arrives to the network in a dynamic fashion such that it needs to be considered individually based on the current network status. The network status consists of the detailed working and available wavelengths on each span as well as all the accepted sessions and P2-cycles provisioned in the network. Given a network modelled as an undirected graph G = (V;E) where each undirected span e2E has a cost ce, the current network which includes the currently used and available wave- lengths on each span e, each accepted session l and their protection P2-cycles. Provision incoming unicast sessions against any single-link failure with the minimum overall blocking probability by using P2-cycle scheme. The assumptions required in this dynamic traffic case are the same as that in the static case. We design two heuristics to address the dynamic traffic case. In the first method, named Strict Routing Protection (SRP), the primary and protection path for each incoming session are computed separately. The primary path is firstly provisioned using Dijkstras shortest routing algorithm. Based on the primary path, either an existing P2-cycle or a new cycle is found to protect it. In the second method, named Flexible Routing Protection (FRP), the primary and protection paths of an incoming session are constructed jointly. The existing P2-cycles will be preferred to being used first. If no existing one is able to protect the session, a new cycle will be formed. We allow spare capacity sharing between different sessions to increase the capacity efficiency. A. Strict Routing Protection (SRP): The motivation of SRP is to always choose the shortest path to route the primary traffic in order to leave more spare capacity for protection, since the capacity used for primary path cannot be shared among different sessions. And then we check whether any available P2 cycle can be exploited to protect this newly established session. Once being set up, the cycle for a P2-cycle cannot be changed. The protection links that are added to PPL’s are one hop away from end nodes. The detail of the algorithm SRP described in following steps: 1. As a new session dl(sl; tl) arrives, establish the primary path fl between sl and tl under current network status by using Dijkstras algorithm. If it fails, the session is blocked; 2. Sort all the existing P2-cycles, cp â‚ ¬ C, in the increasing order of (dl; cp), which is One hop indicates that there exists a span in the network that connects a node to the cycle. If (dl; cp) = infinite 1 for all cp â‚ ¬ C, then no existing cycle is able to protect this new session. Thus, a new cycle needs to be constructed to protect dl. 3. For each existing protection cycle, cp, we construct a temporary graph G0, consisting of only the cycle spans of cp and all the spans connecting the source and destination nodes of l to the cycle . All the spans used by fl should be removed to ensure that its protection path is link-disjoint. Then, all the sessions protected by cp are checked and if an existing session in D can share the same cp with the new session l, we should make sure that either their primary paths or their protection paths are link-disjoint. we remove the protection paths of all the sessions in D whose primary paths are not link-disjoint with fl. If a protection path can still be found in the remaining G0 this protection path will be ql for l. Accordingly, the protection cycle is also determined, which should be updated if some PPLs are also used. 4. If every existing cp fails to protect dl, a new cycle will be constructed to protect it. We first attempt to find two diverse paths to form a cycle that is link-disjoint to fl. If such cycle cannot be found, then we find a path, ql, link-disjoint to fl and the cycle is formed by combining ql with fl. B. Flexible Routing Protection (FRP): Different from SRP, the flexible routing protection scheme considers primary and protection paths jointly for each arriving session. Instead of determining the primary path in advance, we examine each existing P2-cycle and find each potential protection path along the cycle that can connect the source and destination. For each potential protection path, we try to discover a primary path for it. If it succeeds, the session is accepted. Otherwise, a new cycle is constructed to protect the session. Flexible Routing Protection (FRP) Scheme Algorithm FRP is explained in following steps: Given a new session dl(sl; tl), all the available P2-cycles cp â‚ ¬ C are sorted in the increasing order of (dl; cp). For each available cp, list all the possible protection paths for dl. If the end nodes sl and tl are on the cycle, there are two possible segments along the cycle. If sl or(and) tl is not on the cycle, the path will be composed of parasitic links connecting sl or tl to the cycle and an on-cycle segment. We assume the average node degree in a given network is denoted by  µ. Each cycle can provide two on cycle segments between any pair of on-cycle nodes. Each end node, sl or tl, can be connected to the cycle by at most  µ PPLs given the node degree  µ. Hence, the average number of candidate protection paths provided by any P2-cycle For each candidate ql, run Dijkstras algorithm to find a primary path fl in G that is not only link-disjoint to ql but also link-disjoint with other primary paths protected by the same cycle if their protection paths are not link-disjoint. If it succeeds, we store the combination in a temporary set T, which is initialized as ;. After checking all the existing P2-cycles, we check set T and find the combination with minimum cost of fl. We recover the spans removed from G and update the network status. If no existing P2-cycle can be used to protect session dl, we use Bhandaris algorithm to find two link-disjoint paths between si and ti to form a new P2-cycle. If it fails, the session is blocked. Otherwise, the session is accepted and one of the paths (usually the shorter one) is used as the primary path fl, and the network is updated. IV. Results for Dynamic Traffic Based on two P2-cycle protection algorithms, SRP and FRP, proposed for provisioning dynamic requests, we conduct a simulation study to compare the performance of these algorithms under dynamic traffic. The networks used in the simulations are NSFNET, COST239 and USNET, in which USNET network, shown in Fig. 2 has 24 nodes and 43 edges and the average node degree is 3.58. Fig.2 USNET(24 nodes, 43 edges) In each simulation run, 1000 randomly generated unicast requests are loaded to the network sequentially and the reject ratio is recorded. The arrival of traffic follows Poisson distribution with  ¸ requests per second and the duration of an accepted connection is exponentially distributed with a mean of  ¹. The traffic load measured in Erlangs is ÃŽ »Ã‚ µ Each connection requires an entire wavelength to transmit the traffic. The maximum capacity on each network link is set to 16 wavelengths. Figures 3,4,and 5 show the blocking probability of dynamic traffic using SRP, FRP and FIPP p-cycle in NSFNET, USNET and COST239 networks, respectively. Each point in the figures is the average value of 200 simulation runs for each traffic load. For FIPP p-cycle scheme, the primary path of each arriving connection is provisioned first by using Dijkstras algorithm, and then protected by a p-cycle. Fig 3(a):Comparison of blocking probability in NSFNET(W=16) Fig 3(b):Comparison of blocking probability in COST239(W=16) Fig 3(c):Comparison of blocking probability in USNET(W=16) The results show that both SRP and FRP achieve lower blocking probability than FIPP under most of the network scenarios. In NSFNET, SRP achieves better performance than the other two schemes. In USNET, FRP outperforms SRP and FIPP under every scenarios. In COST239, however, SRP and FIPP achieves the same session blocking ratio, which is better than FRP, when the traffic load is relatively low. As the traffic load increases where the network is very saturated, FRP turns to perform better than SRP and FIPP. Based on the results, SRP performs better than other two schemes in relatively small and sparse networks at a low level of traffic load. FRP achieves the best performance in larger and denser networks, especially when the network is very saturated. One of the reason that SRP performs better in small and sparse networks, such as, NSF, is that to provision a session always using the shortest path will save some capacity for protection in a long run. Hence, more capacity can be used for protection such that more cycles can be established. in a network with high nodal degree, a cycle is more likely to reach a large group of nodes compared with a sparse network. In this case, FRP has a higher chance to protect a given session by using existing P2-cycles when network load is very high and the network is over saturated. Fig 4(a).Comparison of NOR in NSFNET(W=16) Fig 4(b).Comparison of NOR in cost239(W=16) Fig 4(c).Comparison of NOR in USNET(W=16) We also studied the average NOR of each accepted connection as in dynamic traffic scenarios and the results are shown in Figures 4(a),4(b) and 4(c). As expected, FIPP achieves the best solution with exact two node reconfigurations for each connection. Meanwhile, SRP also performs better than FRP in three networks. This reveals that connections protected by FRP use more PPLs than those used by SRP, which follows from the basic concept on which the two algorithms are based. It is worth noting that the average NOR achieved by SRP is almost stable below 2.4 in NSF and USNET and 2.7 in COST239. This indicates that most of the connections only need two no reconfigurations upon a network failure, especially in NSF and USNET. FRP has larger average NOR because it iterates every existing p-cycle in the network to protect each session and choose the one with minimum cost but not the one with minimum NOR. Shorter primary paths always results in longer protection paths such that more PPLs are us ed to protect each session. Therefore, based on the simulation results, SRP and FRP both achieves the lowest blocking probability than FIPP in most of the network scenarios considered and each scheme has advantage over the other in different network scenarios. SRP has better failure recovery performance than FRP. In dynamic traffic scenarios, the P2-cycle protection scheme is faster protection scheme provides an enhancement of capacity efficiency over the FIPP p-cycle with asmall change in the recovery time. VI. Extension The p2-cycles can be extended to link failures can be obtained. If one node can be failed then the data will be passed through alternative paths to reach to the destination. The p2 cycle can be defined as the original p-cycle The protection links that are added to PPL’s are one hop away from end nodes. For p2-cycles the network data can be efficiently transferred to destination which is one hop away from the nodes. V. Conclusions In this paper new p cycle protection is done in mesh based protection networks. By using the parasitic protection links (PPL), FIPP p-cycle can be extended through paths from end nodes which are one hop away from the failure nodes of p cycles. In dynamic traffic scenarios., in dynamic their are two algorithms are proposed Strict Routing Protection (SRP) and Flexible Routing Protection (FRP), to handle dynamic traffic demands in order to minimize the total number of blocked sessions. In dynamic traffic case the blocking probability less by using algorithms SRP and FRP comparing with FIPP p cycles. The numerical results shows the P2-cycle protection scheme is a more highly capacity efficient than the Failure Independent Path Protection p-cycle scheme in dynamic traffic case. the P2-cycle protection scheme is a more effective alternative of existent p-cycle-based and path-based protection schemes, Considering the factors of capacity efficiency and recovery speed References D. Zhou and S. Subramanian, â€Å"Survivability in optical networks,† IEEE Networks, 2012 P. Arijs, B. V. Caenegem, P. Demeester, and P. Lagasse, â€Å"Design of ring and mesh based WDM transport networks,† Optical Networks Magazine, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 27-41, 2011. S. Ramamurthy and B. Mukherjee, â€Å"Survivable WDM mesh networks. Part I-protection,† in Proceedings of IEEE INFOCOM, vol. 2, pp. 744-751, 2011. S.krishna â€Å"Survivable WDM mesh network,†, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 870-883, 2009. P. H. Ho and H. T. Mouftah, â€Å"shared protection for optical networks,† IEEE Communications Magazine, pp. 97-103, February 2002. Bharat T. Doshi, Subrahmanyam Dravida, P. Harshavardhana, Oded Hauser, and Yufei Wang, â€Å"Optical Network Design and Restoration,† Bell Labs Technical Journal, JanuaryCMarch 1999 Caihui Ou, J. Zhang, H. Zhang, L. H. Sahasrabuddhe and B. Mukherjee, â€Å"New and Improved Ap-proaches for Shared-Path Protection in WDM Mesh Networks,† IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology, VOL. 22, NO. 5, MAY 2004 Dahai Xu, Y. Xiong and C. Qiao, â€Å"Novel algorithms for shared-segment protection,† IEEE Journal of Selected Areas on Communications, v21. p1320-1331, 2003 Janos Tapolcai and et al. â€Å"A New Shared Segment Protection Method for Survivable Networks with Guaranteed Recovery Time,† IEEE Transactions on Reliability, Vol. 57, pp. 272-282, 2008. W.D D. Stamat, â€Å" Next Generation networks,† in Proc. IEEE ICC’ 98, 1998, pp. 537-543

Overview of Green Wireless Networks

Overview of Green Wireless Networks Abstract: Traditional mobile networks largely focus on availability, variety, stability and large capacity. Due to the rapid development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) industry whose major constituent are the mobile networks, CO2 emissions have been increasing rapidly. This shows the need for energy efficient wireless networks or green wireless networks which will put emphasis on saving the energy and environmental protection. The current wireless networks concentrates mainly on non-energy related factors such as Quality of Service (QoS), throughput and reliability. So these factors have to kept in mind while transitioning to green wireless networks. The techniques that need to be implemented are aimed at improving energy efficiency but not compromising the QoS, throughput and reliability.   In this paper the various metrics which help in evaluating performance of wireless networks are reviewed. Also different approaches to improve energy efficiency in wireless networks an d how to combine them for higher energy efficiency are discussed. Introduction: The latest mobile phones provide multiple services which led to rise of ICT traffic. ICT constitutes for 2% of total Green House Gas (GHG) and CO2 emissions worldwide. Within the ICT sector, mobile sector was responsible for 43% of emissions until 2002 while studies suggest that this number would go up to 51% by 2020 [1]. The predominant energy consuming part in a wireless network is the Radio Access Network (RAN). This comes from the fact the RF power amplifier within the RAN consumes a lot of input power for operation and releases a lot of heat contributing to energy wastage. In addition to this, the inconsistent distribution of real world mobile traffic among the BSs leads to underutilization of supplied energy [1]. These two reasons give us an idea of where the energy is being wasted or not utilized, helping us in formulating new techniques for energy efficient wireless networks. While discussing about various techniques for energy efficiency, we have to keep in mind that the QoS is not compromised at all. Because if an operator uses a technique, they should be able to serve the users by utilizing less energy but not by compromising users service. The various parts of a mobile network that consume power are data centers in backhaul, macro cells, femtocells, mobile stations or end hosts and their services. But the major part that consumes the highest power is the power amplifier section and Base station or RAN section. Hence the various techniques presented in this paper are aimed at energy efficiency in these sections only. Section II of the paper outlines various metrics which can be used to evaluate the energy performance of systems. Section III discusses cell layout adaptation techniques for reducing energy consumption and is divided into 3-subsections that outline various cell shaping algorithms. Section IV explains some challenges and research directions for energy efficient networks like Cognitive Radio (CR), M2M communication etc. Metrics for measuring energy performance: Energy efficiency can be achieved by employing better techniques. But in order to measure the energy consumption or utilization, metrics are needed. Energy efficiency metric can be defined as ratio of output to the input power supplied [1]. The output here may correspond to how much the distance of transmission is, number of bits transmitted or output power etc. The metrics for energy efficiency are broadly categorized into 3 levels: Component level metrics, Access node level metrics and network level metrics. Component level metrics mainly focus on power amplifier section, Access node level metrics focus on RAN or Base station, and network level metrics focus on performance of RAN [1]. These metrics help to quantify energy efficiency of various devices and therefore it becomes easier to compare which technique is better. Firstly, at the component level, where we focus on power amplifier section, there are 2 possible types of metric categories. One is Analog and the other is digital. The two important metrics of analog RF transmission are Power Amplifier efficiency (PA efficiency) and Peak to average power ratio (PAPR). PA efficiency is the ratio of PA output power to the input power supplied to it. Higher value of PA efficiency is desired, but in reality this is the part where most of the input power is wasted. PAPR, as the name suggests is the ratio of Peak power to average power. Lower value of PAPR is desired, as higher values tend to reduce the amplifier efficiency. The significant digital metrics in component level are millions of instructions per second per watt (MIPS/W) and millions of floating point operations per second per watt (MFLOPS/W). Higher value of MIPS/W and MFLOPS/W are desired as they refer to digital output generated for a given power input [1]. Secondly, at access node level there are 2 major metrics. Power efficiency and radio efficiency. Power efficiency refers to transmitted data rate over a given bandwidth and input power supplied. It is measured in bits per second per hertz per watt (b/S/Hz/W). Radio efficiency refers to transmitted data rate and transmitted distance over a given bandwidth and input power supplied. It is measured in bits meters per second per hertz per watt (b-m/S/Hz/W) [1]. Higher values of power and radio efficiency are desired as they measure the data rate and distance of transmission which are always desired to be a higher value for a given power input. Finally, at the network level also there are 2 metrics which measure the number of subscribers served during peak hours and coverage area respectively. The first metric measures the number of subscribers served during peak hour to the supplied input power and is measured in number of subscribers per watt (Subscribers/W) and the second metric measures the coverage area of the radio signal to the supplied input power and is measured in square meters per watt (m2/W) [1]. Higher values for both these metrics are desired as they signify serving more number of subscribers or a larger coverage area for a given power input. Hence when evaluating various techniques for wireless energy efficiency, it is better to know at whether energy efficiency is augmented in component level or access node level or network level. That way it would become easier to compare the efficiency in terms of various levels individual metrics. Reducing Energy consumption through Cell Layout Adaptation: Cell layout adaptation (CLA) techniques focus on energy efficiency at network level. But for these techniques to improve energy efficiency, it is important to improve efficiency in component level and access node level as well, because all these 3 levels are inter-related to each other and one works on the basis of another. Power is first supplied from power amplifier and then to RAN and at last to the network level, that means it is possible to save more energy in component level and access node level and the remaining energy that is used by the network can be efficiently utilized by implementing these cell layout adaptation techniques. CLA techniques are basically divided into 3 major categories. First part consists of cell shaping techniques like Base Stations (BSs) turning off and cell breathing, second part consists of hybrid macro femtocell deployments and the final part consists of relaying techniques [1]. A. Cell Shaping Techniques: As mentioned earlier, base stations turning off and cell breathing techniques encompass cell shaping techniques. The basic idea behind the former is turning off BSs and redistributing the remaining traffic to neighboring base stations. Here we need to make sure that we are turning off BSs which are idle or the ones which have very less traffic that can be taken up by neighboring cells. This way energy consumption is reduced and only the BSs that have traffic will operate and consume energy. Cell breathing scheme goes one step further by not actually turning off BSs, but by reducing the power consumption of a cell. This can be achieved by covering a low distance depending on the traffic. That means BSs experiencing higher traffic operate in full power mode while the BSs with medium traffic operate in medium power mode and cells with very less traffic operate at low power mode, thereby reducing the coverage area depending on subscriber traffic. This is analogous to a cell breathing acc ording to traffic patterns. As these cell shaping techniques are based on network level, number of subscribers served and coverage area metrics should be maintained in order to ensure good QoS and less call drop rate when implementing these techniques. The broader explanation of cell shaping techniques is mentioned above, but to implement those techniques there are 2 major algorithms: switching-off network planning algorithm and cell breathing coordination algorithm [1]. Firstly, switching-off network planning algorithm works on the basis of 3 factors, number of BSs to turn off, number of BSs to operate, and time period for which BSs are turned off. The ratio of number of BSs to turn off and BSs to operate and a specific time period for which turn-off is implemented based on the low traffic pattern is calculated. Once these values are calculated, it is made sure that the blocking probability limit is not exceeded, which means definite QoS is maintained. Cell breathing coordination algorithm works on the basis of a central node called a cell zooming server. The cell zooming server analyzes the incoming traffic and tries to turn of the BSs which do not have any traffic at all. Then it tries to distribute the traffic from less active BSs to busy BSs. It also makes sure to distribute traffic based on input traffic and turns on the sleep mode BSs when required. This centralized approach works good in smaller networks and when it comes to large scale networks, it would be very ineffective. The same applies to switching off network planning algorithm because there is no centralized node to turn on the BSs if needed, as the turn -off time if fixed based on traffic patterns [1]. The cell shaping techniques also bring up a new trade-off, i.e. SE-EE tradeoff (spectral efficiency-energy efficiency) [3]. SE-EE trade-off focuses on network level characteristics like number of subscribers served and coverage area for input power supplied. By implementing these cell shaping techniques although energy efficiency is obtained, there is always chance where coverage area is reduced and some subscribers are ignored. Ideally, higher the energy efficiency lower is the spectral efficiency. But in reality, because of component level energy issues, transmission distances, coding schemes the relationship between SE and EE is not inversely proportional, but it is of the form of a bell curve. So it is better to apply cell shaping techniques until the point where spectral efficiency is not compromised. B. Hybrid macro femtocell deployment: Femtocell deployment in combination with macro cells is a second method under cell layout adaptation. Femtocell deployments provide coverage in the order of 10 meters and utilize a small BS, which requires less power to operate. Femtocell deployment is advantageous as it provides good coverage and QoS to a set of users within its range with less operating expenses when compared to a macro BS [1]. Although femtocell deployment is a good concept, it is not desirable to have too many femtocells as it increases the power consumption and utilizes more network resources for a lesser coverage area. A better way of deployment is having hybrid macro and femtocell deployment. In the case of hybrid deployment, the macro BS provides coverage to users who are evenly spread over a long distance and the femtocell provides coverage to users who are located in a dense region. This way the energy is utilized efficiently, as a new macro BS is not being deployed to provide coverage to those dense set of users. The hybrid macro cell and -femtocell deployment poses a new challenge for handoffs, as macro BS and femtocell BS might have same signal strength in the others coverage region. The handoffs issue can be solved by defining a clear boundary between the macro and femtocell BS. Within the dense region, the femtocell should have higher signal strength and it should properly handoff at the bounda ry of macro BS. Also within the coverage area of macro BS, the femtocell BS should have very less signal strength [1]. This would give a clear idea to define a boundary. A better way of implementing this hybrid deployment is by utilizing the cell shaping techniques like BS turning off and cell breathing coordination. If there are a set of femtocells, and one of the coverage area is totally idle, then that femtocell BS can be turned off and basic coverage is provided by the macro BS at that location. Similarly, if incoming traffic is analyzed, femtocells and macro cells can use the cell breathing techniques to lower their power utilization [1]. Also the hybrid macro and femtocell deployment leads to a DE-EE tradeoff (deployment efficiency-energy efficiency) [3]. Ideally energy efficiency increases when more femtocells are deployed and deployment efficiency goes down because of increase in deployment expenses, network utilization and energy consumption. In a practical scenario, the relationship between DE and EE is more like a bell curve, with a peak point where deployment and energy efficiency are in good standing. Hence it is a good idea to use hybrid deployment until the point where it does not degrade the deployment efficiency and energy efficiency. C. Relaying techniques: Energy efficiency can be achieved through 2 types of relaying techniques. The first technique uses repeater stations or green antennas for relaying and the second technique uses mobile stations for relaying. In the first technique, a repeater station or a green antenna with receiver capability is connected to the macro BS through a coax cable or optical fiber, with the latter utilizing less energy. These green antennas are placed very near to the mobile stations, which helps to reduce the energy consumption in uplink by the mobile stations. Although this technique improves energy efficiency for mobile stations, it increases operating expenses for the service provider. In the second technique, the mobile stations work in coordination and perform the relaying operation. This way the transmission distance for the macro BS is reduced and it consumes less energy. Although this technique assumes mobile stations as relays which work selflessly. Practically, the mobile stations may not work in coordination which would break the link for relaying. One more drawback of this technique is that for maintaining coordination between the mobile stations, more energy is consumed [1]. Challenges and directions for energy efficient wireless networks: Cognitive Radio (CR) and M2M (Machine to Machine) communication systems provide new opportunities in the field of green wireless networks, but also pose significant challenges at the same time. Cognitive Radio can be defined as a RF transceiver that is used to switch users from a very busy spectrum to an unused one and vice versa if needed. The origin for this topic came from the fact that many RF spectrums are congested with several users and some other spectrums are underutilized. Hence the concept of CR would efficiently manage users in various spectrums and help to deliver better QoS. Indirectly this switching of spectrums or utilizing unused spectrums is resulting in energy efficiency as spectrums with more users will not utilize additional energy as users are transferred to other spectrum. Also underutilized spectrums which were consuming energy for operation, now serve the new users efficiently resulting in energy and spectrum utilization. The only disadvantage of CR technique is that monitoring various RF spectrums and switching users from one spectrum to another requires significant energy. Hence this technique would be energy efficient only if more energy is saved by intelligently switching users than that is utilized for monitoring spectrums or users [2]. M2M wireless communication systems are aimed at connecting various wireless devices directly. This approach also helps in reducing energy consumption from the point of view of a mobile station. M2M helps to reduce the computation required by various physical devices and also tries to offload them to the network itself. This way the mobile stations consume less energy as the number of computations is reduced. The major disadvantage with this approach is that if more computation is offloaded to the main network, it might consume more energy that that is being saved by mobile stations by utilizing this approach. Hence this technique would be energy efficient if the main network does not consume a lot of energy for some additional computations [2]. Conclusion and Future Scope: The rise in carbon footprint, especially the contribution to it from the ICT sector and consequently mobile sector led to interest in energy efficient wireless networks. Energy efficiency can be achieved at various levels such as power amplifier, RAN and network. The techniques proposed in the paper focus on energy efficiency in RAN and network levels. But they also have trade-offs like DE-EE and SE-EE, which can be vanquished by emerging techniques like CR and M2M communications. These emerging techniques can be improved in a way where they consume less energy for monitoring in comparison with the prevailing levels. Alongside that, at the power amplifier level, the current solution for energy efficiency is to use expensive components which would trade off the gains achieved by energy savings. Hence a future research direction would be addressing energy efficiency at power amplifier level and improving CR and M2M techniques. VI. References: [1] Luis .S, Nuaymi .L, and Bonnin .J, An overview and classification of research approaches in green wireless networks. Eurasip journal on wireless communications and networking 2012.1 (2012): pp.1-18. [2] Xiaofei .W, et al. A survey of green mobile networks: Opportunities and challenges. Mobile Networks and Applications 17.1 (2012): pp.4-20. [3] Yan Chen; Shunqing Zhang; Shugong Xu; Li, G.Y., Fundamental trade-offs on green wireless networks, in Communications Magazine, IEEE , vol.49, no.6, pp.30-37, June 2011.

The House on Clydesdale Lane :: English Literature Essays

The House on Clydesdale Lane The small townhouse always had the inviting fragrance of freshly cut flowers in the morning and the delicious aroma of my mother's secret recipes in the early evening. Anyone who entered was immediately greeted by the fragrances and found themselves staying a little longer than they planned. The delicate light from my grandmother's antique lamp beckoned sleep and the faded striped cushions on the worn living room couch held many a drowsy head in those days. The inside of the house consisted of rooms that were small and barely separated so that you always knew what was going on in the next room. From the living room, you could see my mother giggling at one of my father's corny jokes as they prepared supper together. In the living room, my older brother was most likely teasing my sister and me and tickling us until we screamed. We played games of "go-fish" and Chinese checkers as we waited for supper to be ready. We always ate dinner together in the dining room that barely separated the kitchen from the living room. The dinner table was a small wooden square that had wobbly legs and shook when one of us laughed. Sometimes trivial arguments took place when my brother would hurl mashed potatoes from his spoon at my sister or me. After dinner, my sister and I raced to see who could make it up the stairs first to put our pajamas on for bed. My dad read stories to us and often told us stories from when he was a boy. It was a warm house. It was warm even in the icy winter months when the heat was turned off at night to save money. My younger sister and I snuggled together in the bed we shared and used our hairbrushes as microphones as we lip-synched the songs on our tiny radio. Sometimes during those nights we played "Candyland' when we were supposed to be asleep—until we were caught. The outside of our house looked much like the rest of the houses in the neighborhood. The peeling green paint flaked off into the small patch of dirt my mother used as a flower garden. The sidewalk was gray and covered with brown hopscotch patterns from the tree bark we used as chalk. The front door had an outside door that had a torn and tattered screen that hung down lifelessly.

Ciminal Insanity Essay -- Judicial Criminal System

â€Å"A judge's ruling today that an Irvington babysitter who stabbed her 5-year-old nephew 57 times is not guilty by reason of insanity was followed by screams of agony from the dead child's father.† (Juri, 2009) This woman will be locked up, but in a maximum security psychiatric facility not a prison. Is this just? Is this fair? It may be. What if this woman did not know that the child was what she was stabbing? What if she saw a dog that was attacking her, or maybe she was even farther removed from reality. This is the difficulty with criminal insanity cases. Sometimes, even if the person is mentally ill a murder is a murder; theft is theft. Should criminal insanity be a useable defense in Canadian court systems? Through the history there have been three basic definitions of legal insanity. First was the M'Naghten Rule. This rule stated that a person was only considered legally insane if they were "incapable of appreciating his surroundings"(Montaldo, 2010) due to a mental illness. This is a quite strict definition without much room for special cases. It caused a â€Å"black and white† view of criminal insanity cases. The M'Naghten Rule lasted until the 1950s when in the Durham v. United States case the court ruled that "would not have committed the criminal act but for the existence of a mental disease or defect."(Montaldo, 2010) the Durham method got a lot of criticism because it was very lenient on the definition of criminal insanity so that it almost depended on the judge to decide if the person was to be considered criminally insane or not. To address this problem a third method was created by the American Law Institute and was published as part of the Model Penal Code. The Model Penal Code provided a standardized idea of crimina... ...us reus. Retrieved from http://www.answers.com/topic/actus-reus Burns, K. (2008, May 16). Criminal insanity . Retrieved from http://karisable.com/crmh.htm Dryden-Edwards, MD, R. (2010). Schizophrenia. Retrieved from http://www.medicinenet.com/schizophrenia/page3.htm Farlex, . (2010). Insanity defense. Retrieved from http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Criminal+insanity Findlaw, . (2010). The insanity defense: history and background .. Retrieved from http://criminal.findlaw.com/crimes/more-criminal-topics/insanity-defense/insanity-defense-background.html Juri, C. (2009, January 06). Judge accepts insanity defense from babysitter in irvington child's slaying. Retrieved from http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2009/01/a_judges_ruling_today_that.html Montaldo, C. (2010). The insanity defense. Retrieved from http://crime.about.com/od/issues/a/insanity.htm

A Blind Man Leads the Way

A Blind Man Leads the Way â€Å"Cathedral† by Raymond Carver, describes a couple who is awaiting the arrival of the wife’s blind friend, Robert. The husband is not too fond of a blind man staying in their house and is judgmental about meeting him. It’s not until the family sits down to watch t. v. that the husband gains respect for Robert. A show about cathedrals comes on, and Robert asks him to describe them to him. When Robert and the husband draw the cathedral together with their eyes closed, the husband begins to see what he could not describe with his eyes open. Carver uses the cathedral in the story as a symbol of sight, insisting that the narrator was blinded by prejudice before he met Robert and also as a symbol of teaching, Robert acting as a preacher in a church. The husband is very judgmental and negative toward blind people. He states, â€Å"My idea of blindness came from the movies. In the movies, the blind moved slowly and never laughed. Sometimes they were led by seeing eye dogs† (526). The husband views all blind people as the same and gives them the same respect, which is none. He brings them down to make himself feel better. Carver’s figures close themselves off from their worlds, walling out the threatening forces in their lives even as they wall themselves in and retreat destructively into the claustrophobic inner enclosures of self† (Davis). When the narrator meets Robert and they all sit down for dinner, his opinion about Robert begins to change. He says, â€Å"The blind man had right away located his fo ods, he knew just where everything was on his plate† (531). The husband was in shock that Robert did not need someone to cut up his food and help him eat his meals. He begins to see and appreciate Robert as a person and not just as a blind man. His sight is in full affect when he begins describing the cathedral from the t. v. show. The narrator could see the cathedral, but he could not quite describe what he saw. He and the blind man began to draw the cathedral, and for once the narrator felt like he was the blind and that the blind man was the one who could see. The husband states, â€Å"It’s really something† (537). This is when he can fully see the picture not only of the cathedral, but also the understanding that even the blind can see and understand things with their eyes closed. The narrator comes to understand Robert and learns a lot from him. Robert helps him to open his eyes and become less judgmental of the blind. The husband learns from Robert that you can’t judge a book by its cover, and that sometimes it’s the important things in life that you can’t see that really matter. Cathedrals are holy structures that people go to and receive an understanding of a higher power. In this story Robert is represented by the cathedral being the teacher, and the seeker is the husband. Robert is the one who gives the understanding of what it is like to be blind. Robert teaches the husband along the way by his actions and shows him that being blind is not a disability, but sometimes even a gift. Robert insists they draw a cathedral together and as the husband draws, Robert guides him through the process. Robert states, â€Å"That’s right. That’s good,† he said. â€Å"Sure. You got it bub, I can tell. You didn’t think you could but you can, can’t you† (536)? Robert is guiding the narrator through the process, just as a preacher would guide his church through a service. Robert is guiding the husband step by step, making sure he is getting an understanding of the Cathedral. In the beginning, the narrator was less passionate about Cathedrals, but through Robert’s eyes, he grew found of them. The narrator states, â€Å"The truth is, cathedrals don’t mean anything special to me. Nothing. Cathedrals. They’re something to look at on late-night TV† (535). The narrator viewed cathedrals differently by the end, and they made him feel something he had never felt before. The narrator states, â€Å"My eyes were still closed. I was in my house. I knew that. But I didn’t feel like I was inside anything† (536). At this point the narrator feels outside of everything at the moment and spiritually feels like he is part of something greater. â€Å"As a symbol represents a kind of common humanity and benevolence, and of human patience and fortitude, in the process of â€Å"a-spiring. † Curiously enough it is within the walls of the cathedral that the narrator ultimately ends up† (Nesset). Robert showed the narrator that there is a higher power out there. He did not want to pester the husband by talking to him about religion so he showed him through drawing the cathedral. The narrator felt like he was outside of his own body and felt like he was part of something higher. Robert taught the husband along the way showing him that seeing isn’t believing, but believing is seeing. By this point, the narrator witnessed himself opening up and becoming less judgmental of the situation. â€Å"Only in Cathedral does the reader witness the rare moments of their coming out, and process of opening up in closed-down lives that comes across in both the subjects and events of the stories†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Nesset). Robert was a Christian man, and believes that he showed the narrator that there is a higher power out there, and helped the husband understand that through the cathedral. â€Å"The narrator of â€Å"Cathedral† communicated verbally and non-verbally with Robert, resulting a renewed sense of empathy and a remarkable, almost religious experience† (Champion). The narrator did experience a religious experience through the cathedral, and it made him feel like he was not himself. Through the cathedral, the husband is a changed man. Robert shows and guides him along the way, teaching him that seeing is not everything and that even someone blind can help you to see and understand things you never thought you could describe. In the beginning the husband was very judgmental of Robert and did not want him in his home, and by the end he felt like his life had been missing something and that was the guidance of the cathedral. The sight he encountered as he sat there with Robert and drew the cathedral was like something he had never seen before, and could only be seen with his eyes closed.

IT for education and learning Essay

As we all knew, Information Technology has been well-developed for years. Nowadays, lots of youngsters would study online via the Internet, such as finding academic materials for doing project, submitting assignments to the online learning environment of their schools and so forth; therefore, people started to think what features of information technology can facilitate with education and learning. In particular, people would call this kind of learning as â€Å"e-learning†. According to D. R. Garrison (2011)1, e-learning is â€Å"formally defined as electronically mediated asynchronous and synchronous communication for the purpose of constructing and confirming knowledge. † The foundation of this technology is the Internet associating with communication technologies. So how would e-learning affect our education and learning? My ideas are as follows. First and foremost, online games are suitable for using within a learning environment as they are based on the theories of situated learning, motivation and learning by doing. What is online game? A. Rollings and E. Adams (2006) 2 introduce online game is a technology for connecting players together over computer networks like on the Internet. Online games can provide large simulated conditions in the real world for learners to solve problems and deal with others. They not only increase learners’ motivation and engagement but also enhance the learning experience and recognition. Additionally, they also provide free trainings that allow mistakes and errors so that the cost can be lowered. They can also increase the chance of communication such that they would have better coordination and communication skills. Take military and emergency services as an example, like America’s Army, it offers soldiers a virtual but real environment to have trainings. To be more specific, the soldiers are required to work as a team and accomplish the missions. It can build up the team spirit and let them enter into the real situation. Secondly, in accordance with Athanassios Jimoyiannis (2012)3, online game is beneficial for people to learn languages. Alternate Reality Games (ARGs) is one kind of the online games that involves multimedia and gaming elements to act as a story to let learners contribute their own ideas and action as if they took place in real time. ARGs are usually built around social networking system, which is an online platform, with Web 2. 0 technology, that focuses on building up social networks or social relations among people by sharing posts and doing real-life connections, like Facebook and Twiiter, in which learners can interact with others and form alliances. Therefore, through these kind of games, learners are able to gain appreciations for colloquial meanings, verbs and so forth. Thirdly, there is another technology that cannot be omitted – Learning Management System (LMS), like OUHK Online Learning Environment. It works as a platform for students to access multi-media study materials and participate in a wide range of learning-related activities through the use of a computer and an Internet access. Furthermore, students can obtain updated information about courses and programmes that they attend to, participate in online discussions with their peers and tutors, submit assignments, do exercises and self tests and monitor their own study progress through the web-based instruction. As a result, we can see that online learning environment can facilitate with E-learning for people to enhance their studies. And the advantages that LMS brings us – management of personal knowledge and learning resources, collaboration and instructional support – can enhance people’s critical thinking and decision-making. As a final point, people like youngsters, not like the previous generation, would not only receive what their teachers give them but find other sources through search engines, such as Google and Bing, themselves. They prefer videos, audios and interactive media; in the meanwhile, some scientists claimed that using graphics and colours can stimulate people’s brains to memorize and strengthen this ability. That’s why tutors would love to express their ideas through PowerPoint to their students nowadays. Simple and clear structure of PowerPoint slides can offer the content ideas with few lines in bullet form to students. Moreover, visual and auditory media can be added to make the materials more appealing. It not only improves the audience focus, but also engages multiple learning styles, for instance, students can read the materials through their mobile phones. However, if people get addicted to Internet uses, e-learning might become a severe obsession that they would get lost in the real life, like virtual world is â€Å"pulling† them from the real life. Dr. Charles O’Brien, a professor of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania, claimed that getting addicted to Internet uses like online games will become an official disorder because more and more people are going to do studies on it. There was a case last year in South Korea, where the couple, who had a real baby, was so involved with the virtual baby and doing things with the virtual baby, thus they neglected their real live baby and the baby died. Therefore, people’s self-restraint and the cooperation between teachers and parents (for youngsters) are undeniably required if e-learning becomes more and more popular in the world. (870 words) Reference list: 1. D. R. Garrison (D. Randy)(2011), E-learning in the 21st century a framework for research and practice, New York : Routledge 2. Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams (2006), Fundamentals of Game Design. Prentice Hall. 3. Athanassios Jimoyiannis (2012), Research on e-learning and ICT in education, New York : Springer 4. Alan J Daly (2010), Social network theory and educational change, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard Education Press 5. John D. Sutter,† Is ‘gaming addiction’ a real disorder? †, CNN, linkage retrieved from: http://www. cnn. hk/2012/08/05/tech/gaming-gadgets/gaming-addiction-dsm/index. html 5. http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=NdDmp_Ak1no.

Indian Overview Fashion Dress

Harpoon statues, which have been dated to approximately 3000 b. C. E. , depict the garments worn by the most ancient Indians. A Priestley bearded man is shown wearing a toggling robe that leaves the right shoulder and arm bare; on his forearm is an armlet, and on his head is a coronet with a central circular decoration. The robe appears to be printed or, more likely, embroidered or applique ©d in a trefoil pattern. The trefoil motifs have holes at the centers of the three circles, suggesting that stone or colored faience may have been embedded there. Harpoon female figures are scantily clad.A naked female with heavy bangles on one arm, thought to represent a dancer, could have been a votive figure that would have been dressed (also in a toggling garment, leaving the decorated arm uncovered) for ritual use, a custom observed throughout India in the early twenty-first century. Other excavated female figurines wear miniskirts, necklaces, and elaborate headdresses. The skirts are faste ned either by sashes or beaded girdles, which continued to be used in later times. One figure wears a short cloak leaving the breasts bare. A fan-shaped headdress is seen on statues of both sexes.Male figures appear to wear a neck scarf hat may be an early angstrom, a traditional scarf still used in the early twenty- first century. However, the Harpoon scarves are shown held by a brooch and could be signs of office. The Vivid period has traditionally been associated with the Aryans and their entry into India around 2000 b. C. E. , though this date has been disputed, as it has been learned that Central Asian tribes had been moving into northern India and beyond from very early times. The Vivid hymns refer to the Indus Valleys famous cotton and Gander's wool and dyed fabrics.The Kampala, or blanket, appears to have been used by both men and women as a wrapper. The earliest Vivid hymn, the Rig Veda (ca. 2000 b. C. E. ), refers to garments as visas. A number of words are used for cloth, thus indicating a consciousness of clothing styles. Cassavas meant â€Å"well- dressed,† and savanna described a person arrayed in splendid garments. The word shrubs meant â€Å"well-fitting,† which denotes stitched garments. The god Pupas is called a â€Å"weaver of garments,† Vass viva, for it was he who fashioned different forms. A mystical quality is associated with apparel.An undressed man could not offer sacrifices to the gods?an essential aspect of Vivid life?for he would be complete only when properly dressed. The common mode of dress during the Vivid period was draping. The most important item was the nevi, which was wrapped around the waist according to the wearer's status and tradition. Worn over this was the visas, which could be a drape, a wrap, or a Jacket (known as drape or attack). The tributary was a draped upper garment. The apartheid, or breast cover, was either wrapped around the breasts, as is still done in Tripper, or tied at the back.The attack, worn by men, was a long, close-fitting coat often India extends from the high Himalayas in the northeast to the Karakas and Hindu Cush ranges in the northwest. The major rivers?the Indus, Ganges, and Yamaha? spring from the high, snowy mountains, which were, for the area's ancient inhabitants, the home of the gods and of purity, and where the great sages meditated. Below the Karakas range lies the beautiful valley of Kashmir; to the north of Kashmir is Lady. Although the mountains have always formed forbidding barriers, passes through them permitted the migration of a range of ethnic groups from Central Asia and beyond.These nomads?the Scythian, the Hunt, and many others?settled in North India and then penetrated further, bringing varied lifestyles, levels, ideas, and skills, as well as ways to express themselves through dress, ornaments, rituals, rites of passage, myths, deities, and spirits. The valley of the verdant Punjab, Harlan?Indian's granary? attracted large-scale m igrations from ancient times. Restaurants and parts of Ketch are in the Tar Desert, while the oldest mountain range, the Arrivals, runs from Gujarat and Restaurants to the open spaces of the Delhi ridge, which conservationists are desperately trying to save.The desert was inhabited by nomads from Central Asia who created fiefdoms in Gujarat and Restaurants in the seventh century c. . These princes had their own chivalrous traditions and legends, which bards have kept alive in their ballads into the early twenty-first century. Dress and Jewelry were elaborate, and festive celebrations occurred among both the rich and the poor. Sarasota, in Gujarat, had nearly two hundred principalities, and Gujarat, Restaurants, and Madhya Pradesh together had innumerable small and large estates, all of which were laws unto themselves.Each state would try to outdo the others in the opulence of their dress, courtly life, and celebrations. The Vanity Range divides northern from southern India. The cent ral section consists of the Decca Plateau and its two rivers, the Goodyear and the Krishna, while the Eastern and Western Ghats are the small hills that edge the coastal areas. The Decca Plateau, which rolls down to the sea, is the land of the Dravidian people. The original inhabitants of this area were Stone Age cave dwellers whose traces have been found by archaeologists. Some descendants of these ancient people still cling to their age-old matrilineal social structure.The country varying climatic conditions have resulted in a range of textiles and manners of dress. Cultural milieu, 2 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH ASIA described as being embroidered with gold thread. Peas was a gold-embroidered or woven cloth used for making pleated skirts. It is interesting that many of these words continue to be used in slightly different forms. Attack may be cancan, a long, close- fitting coat worn by men, while pesewa may be the root of pesewa, the term for a long, flowing dress Joining skirt and upper g arment and worn by women at the Ragout courts; it was also adopted by dancers.Different turban styles are mentioned and appear also to have been worn by women to denote status. There are references in he Veda to mantles embroidered with gold thread, and proof (in a description of borders running the length of a cloth and of two borders across its width) that the dhoti, the lower wrapped garment, had already emerged during this period. The all- around border indicates that such cloth was used as a veil, a shawl, or an Odin for the upper part of the body. T Buddhist and Gain literature, especially the Steak tales, provides details about life between 642 and 320 b. . E. Descriptions of garments and fabrics forbidden to monks and mendicants are indicators of what was worn by laypersons. Cloth of bark, Balkan; fabric made from human hair, keas-Kimball; and owl feathers and deerskin were forbidden to monks, as were patterned and dyed garments. What is interesting is that the cinchona, the stitched Jacket, was also prohibited for monks and mendicants, which suggests that they could not wear stitched cloths; this is still the case among some sects in the early twenty-first century. Nuns, however, were allowed the use of bodices.The apparel worn by laypersons consisted of the antimacassar, or loincloth; the attractants, a mantle for covering the upper body; and he Sunnis, or turban. Tunics or Jackets were worn by both men and women. All items appear to have been mostly instituted, but the style of draping varied according to status, region, and taste. The dhoti could be pleated to fall in front like an elephant's trunk or like a fan to form a sort of fish tail, as is still done by some dancers in South India. The sash known as sandbank was also intricately knotted and draped.Shoes and sandals with linings and of varying shapes, materials, and colors are also mentioned, as are padded shoes with pointed ends like scorpion stings, still made in Punjab. A study of sculptur es from the Marry and Sung periods (321-72 b. C. E. ) provides a greater wealth of detail. Alongside a graphic description by the Greek ambassador to the Marry court of flowing garments worn by both men and women, and printed and woven with gold, dyed in multiple colors, and draped in a number of ways, the elaborate stone carvings at Barbet, Ashcan, and Patriarchal in the Decca give a good idea of dress forms.The Unitarian (lower-body wrap) was tied either in the middle at the waist or below the navel, and was tucked between the legs and taken to the back. Members of the upper class wore it ankle length, while the working class and peasantry wore it knee length. The Unitarian was fastened by a sash, varying from a short one tied at the waist to an elaborate one draped in many different ways. The tributary, or upper garment, was worn in a range of styles, from an elegant drape to a casual wrap. At Barbet, a representation of one of the earliest stitched garments can be seen; it has a round neck tied with tassels and also ties at the waist.Women wore the Unitarian either tucked in back or as a pleated, instituted skirt, and they also used a sash. The tutorials An embroidered backless blouse from the nomadic people of Ran of Ketch, Gujarat, India, 1994. Photograph by Asleep Domain. Of aristocratic women appear to have been very fine, with embroidered patterns and borders, and seem to have been used to cover the head. Sculpted figures wear elaborate earrings, as well as necklaces, armlets, bracelets, and belts. The Kanata was worn close to the neck, while the larger lambent carried chains, beads, and amulets. Men wore long necklaces adorned with animal heads.Girdles, armlets, and bangles were sported by women, along with rings and anklets in different forms. Some fine Marry Jewelry made with the granulation technique was discovered in Ataxia. Dating from the time of the powerful Stagehand Empire (200 b. C. E. -250 c. E. ) in southern India, the Martial caves, some of the caves at Junta, and remains at Nonjudgmental contribute to an understanding of the dress and ornamentation of this period. The Astrakhan's came to power as the Marry Empire was on the wane; the Margins had spread from the north to the Decca, as well as to the east, influencing culture and traditions as they went.In addition, a mix of ethnic groups including Parthian, Scythian, and Greeks intermingled with the local Dravidian. Trade with Rome brought new ideas and materials and increased the level of prosperity. Stitched garments were worn by men in the form of tunics, while lower garments consisted of a range of dhotis worn in INDIA numerous ways, tucked between the legs, knee length, and tied with decorative sashes, or in a more elaborate ankle-length fashion. Stitched tunics with round or V-necks were unembellished except for a folded sash, which appears to have been worn in a range of ways and added a sense of style to these ensembles.Women do not appear to have worn stit ched clothes. Their Unitarians were knotted either in the center or at the side and tightly wrapped; they appear to have been practically transparent, clearly outlining the limbs. Women did not wear turbans but dressed their hair in several styles: braided, in a chignon above the forehead (as in Kraal in the early twenty-first century), or in a bun at the nape of the neck. Jewelry, in the form of numerous bangles, long necklaces, Jeweled belts, and anklets, was elaborate.Women wore a range of Jewels on their heads such as the chiding, a tots form still worn in southern India by brides and traditional dancers. Elaborate earrings were also common. Royalty had emblems to distinguish them from commoners, including umbrellas, which were large; richly decorated with silk, gold embroidery, and applique ©; and open rather than folding as in Europe. The cheerio, or flashily, was used only for royalty or the gods. Royal standards and swords were also symbols of power, and thinned sandals ap pear to have been the kings prerogative.According to tradition, in the absence of the king, his sword and sandals represented him. The Khans (50-185 c. E. Ruled from the Genetic Plain to Bacteria in Central Asia. Part of the Wheezy tribe that originally had come from China, they united five tribes under their chief Kulak Shadiness. The most powerful Khans ruler was Kinshasa (78-144 c. E. ), a stone figure of whom, wearing elaborate stitched garments, can be seen at Mature. His tunic extends below his knees with a girdle at the waist. Beneath the tunic he wears a pair of pants; over it is a heavy coat with out- turned lapels.His pants are tucked into heavy boots, and he appears to be wearing spurs. Dress of this period exhibits certain stylistic transformations. The indigenous working people wore a simple, short longboat, a knee-length wrapper tucked between the legs, with a short shoulder cloth, similar to the Gambia, which had multiple functions: as a turban to protect from the sun , as a towel, and as a sack for carrying goods. Foreign attendants at court, entertainers, and soldiers wore stitched clothes, as did traders.Nomadic influence can be seen in the adoption of the long-sleeved, knee-length tunic and of a knee-length coat, chough, worn over the tunic and tied with a girdle or a buckled belt. Pants were tucked into boots, and a pointed cap was worn, apparently made of felt and of a type still used by the Shirking people of Central Asia. Women are shown in sculptures from Kandahar wearing a serialize garment that appears to have derived from the Greece-Roman tradition of drapery. Worn tucked at the back and draped over the left shoulder, this style is seen in the sculptures at Mature and resembles sari draping in the early twenty-first century.Some Ghanaian figures also have an tributary, draped over their shoulder like the shall, worn in the early twenty-first century over the sari outside the home or for some ceremonies. In some cases the sculptured fi gures wear blouses underneath their draped Unitarian. THE GUPPY PERIOD The Guppy Empire was a golden period of creative expression. This empire stretched across most of the north, extending to Balk in the northeast, from 400 to the mid-eighth century c. E. Stitched garments were common, and regional differences began to emerge.The fact that the Khans leaders, as well as the Asks and the Scythian, who ruled in Gujarat in western India for two hundred years, sometimes wore stitched garments indicates that such clothing was associated with royalty and high officials. Thus, it became highly prestigious. The late murals from the Junta caves provide details of colors, patterns, and drapery. Rulers depicted in court scenes appear to be wearing transparent, floating wraps and scarves, fine Jewelry, and elaborate crowns and headdresses. Stitched garments are also seen.Gold coins, some of the most exquisite artifacts from this period, show men in full Khans royal dress: coat, pants, and boots . Women in the Guppy period wore the Unitarian in many different ways. The cache style of tucking it between the legs was not very common, and a different style of wrapped Lott, very short to ankle length, was worn. The wrap gave way to a stitched skirt with an izard, or tape, tied at the waist or below it with a sash. In some cases this skirt was worn like a sarong from armpit to midnight. Ruling-class women wore longer skirts or ankle-length Unitarians, while the working class wore shorter ones.Perhaps due to Gain and Buddhist influences (nuns had been instructed to cover their breasts and wear loose garments to hide the curves of their bodies), different blouse shapes began to appear. A number of breast covers are mentioned in the literature, from ands, which raised the breasts, to schools worn with the opening at the back and an apron to cover the stomach, or blouses tied in the front, which are still worn in the early twenty's century. Jewelry appears to have been finely worked in gold. Earrings were sandals, hoops worn together with smaller pearl earrings at the top of the ear.The karakul, or lotus flower, was another type, while the canals-sandals, tremulous earrings, swayed and twinkled with every movement. Women appear to have worn a quantity of pearls, including mutilate, a type of pearl necklace, or another magnificent necklace known as visitant, which combined pearls, rubies, emeralds, diamonds, and sapphires. The knish's, coin necklace, was also popular and is still worn in the early twenty-first century. Armlets were used by men and women alike, sometimes in the form of a snake. Jeweled girdles suspended over the hips were provocatively draped and hung below the navel.Flowers, possibly fragrant, were used to decorate the hair and as garlands. In the Decca, the Vassals ruled in the fifth century b. C. E. , to be succeeded by the powerful Chalky kings at Bedlam in Andorra. Further south were the Plasmas of Champions and the Pandas of Madeira. The u pper caste had absorbed Guppy influence, but in the interior people continued to follow traditional lifestyles. Royal men wore stitched tunics; sculptures from this time attest to the use of sleeved blouses among women. However, traditional draped and wrapped clothing for both men and women continued to be the norm.Turbans were worn by men, especially royalty, but never by women, nor are there depictions of women covering their heads. Even in the early twenty-first century, head covering by women in South India is associated with widowhood. According to Motif Chancre, the lexical of the seventh century c. E. Provide a range of information about dress of this period. In fact, the very existence of such sources is a sign that the terminology COUNTRIES OF SOUTH ASIA and Turks, as well as from the Arabs, led to the introduction of Islam. Along with these groups came Suffix mystics with their emphasis on egalitarianism.Because they reached out to the people, their influence spread widely . The urban centers of the Islamic world were closely interlinked, and the tradition of having ateliers attached to Islamic courts from Spain to Syria was intended in India, resulting in a major change in lifestyles and fashion. With the founding of the Mammal dynasty by Quit-du-din Bake at Delhi in 1206, the Sultanate period began. In the early fourteenth century, Muhammad bin Thought established the dare al-tiara, court ateliers as described by the famous traveler Bin Batista.The historian Bin Fade Allah al-‘Mari (1301-1348) mentions that a tiara factory employed four thousand silk weavers and four thousand brocade weavers, whose production was made into robes of honor, kilts, and robes, saw, for the sultan, his family, and his favorite courtiers. Emir Kruse Delilah, the great savant and poet, wrote that the clothing worn by kings and noblemen followed contemporary Persian fashion. AAA-‘Mari further observed that linen garments imported from Alexandria and â€Å"the l and of Russians† were very fine and that only persons permitted by the ruler to do so could wear them.He also mentioned garments made in the style of Baghdad and described gold-embroidered robes. Sleeves were embroidered with tiara. Thus there appears to have been a fair amount of mobility of fashion at this time. A great deal of money seems to have been spent on special clothing. Frizz Shah Thought is supposed to have worn an extremely valuable Gullah cap over which a turban of fine material was tied. Four-cornered caps decorated with Jewels were also worn. Men arranged their hair into locks or ringlets and added tassels. Learned men and Judges wore long, striped gowns from Yemen.Indian Muslim society was divided into four main groups: the secular and religious nobility, the traders, the artisans, and those who worked the land. The secular nobility was divided into all-I USAF, men of the sword, or warriors, and all-I slam, men of the pen; these groups were comprised of Turks, Afghans, Arabs, and Persians who tried to remain separate from the local population, whether Hindus or earlier Muslim converts. Turks and Afghans chose their wives from households that could trace their lineages back to their ancient tribes, thus maintaining their distinctive mode of dress and lifestyle.Dress divided the people. Muslims wore tailored clothes, while Hindus wore mostly instituted garments, though Hindu men did wear Jackets, which were tied at the side opposite of that worn by Muslim men. Hindu women wore a voluminous skirt or a sari, while Muslim women wore the churchyard pajama, a tunic, and a pesewa with a veil. A man wearing the traditional dress of the nomadic people of Ketch, featuring the type of printed cloth that was exported from the area from early times. Gujarat, India, 1982. Photograph by Asleep Domain. Had become highly evolved.Variable, ornate, and Unitarian were all terms used to describe the tributary. The head cover, Dunham in Sanskrit, continued to be used in a modified form, called Odin or Danna, as did the gharry, which in the early twenty-first century is called gharry or chagrin. The Jacket, tunic, or blouse was called could, chinchilla, surpasses, Angola, and cinchona, words that are still used in efferent parts of North India. Gain sources are full of information on Indian garments used by both the clergy and the laity. The Ached Sutras, which describe rules of conduct, are rich in material.Mention is made of Jackets and quilted or draped tunics, as well as floor-length robes such as principal. The shoemaker, Pawtucket or Carmella, is mentioned as making a range of shoes. There are rules as to how often clothes are to be changed. The washing of garments is meticulously described, including hand-washing, dual; calendaring, grants (that is, stretching cloth); starching, marts; and pleating and perfuming. There are also terms for sewing implements: needle, such or sevens; and scissors, Ukrainian, karri, and kali.THE MCHUGH EMPIRE The next great change in lifestyle, thought, and administration came with the Mussels. Sahara-du-din Muhammad Baber had made five forays into India, but it was not until 1526 that he was able to defeat Sultan Abraham and reach Delhi and Agar. In the four years that followed, he laid the foundation for an empire that lasted until the coming of the colonial powers from Europe. Baber, a poet, aesthete, and adventurous warrior, never really took to India; his first act was to establish a garden, since he engaged for his homeland, the lush green valley of Ferryman.It was his grandson, Kafka the Great, who tried to understand the rich culture THE ARRIVAL OF ISLAM It was only with the incursions of Muhammad of Ghana in 997 c. E. That Indian's isolation ended. New influences from the Afghans INDIA of the country over which he ruled and who realized the need to assimilate Hindu and Muslim culture. The Burnham, Burr's autobiography, gives a graphic description of the emperor's daily ac tivities, also describing festivals and celebrations. It mentions the bestowing of robes of honor, but these are sable robes tit buttons, more suitable for the cold of Central Asia.It also mentions the presentation to Burr's son Human of a char, possibly an elaborate Central Asian collar influenced by those worn by the Chinese. There is a further reference to the expensive hat worn by Human, known as culpa; he was also given a costly plume, which he probably wore on a cap or turban. Baber describes a toothaches, a tent or storeroom where textiles and royal clothes were kept, including while on military campaigns, thus emphasizing the importance of dress even in camp. Gunner was the dismissive term applied to clothing worn by non-Muslims.Saba's chronicler Babul Faze recorded many of the changes introduced by the emperor in the area of court dress, including his interest in local traditions and his attempt to upgrade local skills by importing master craftsmen from many countries. Thes e individuals were offered special grants of land, pensions, and so forth, and given Saba's personal encouragement. He also introduced fine cotton and printed clothing as being suitable to the climate. The cheddar Jam with pointed ends is typical of the age of Kafka and is seen being worn by men in miniature paintings of the time.Women ear veils, not caps, and appear to have used fine-quality cotton and worn multiple layers of fine cloth. Kafka also renamed garments using the Hindi language. Jam (coat) became Saratoga, â€Å"covering the entire body'; izard (pants) became yard-piranha, â€Å"the 65 companion of the coat†; amanita Jacket) became tanned; fat (belt) became patgat; burqa (veil) became chitchat guppy; kulak (cap) became sis sob's; mum-ABA (hair ribbon) became Hessian; pat (sash) became Katz; shall (shawl) became paranormal; and bazaar (shoes) became charlatan.Kafka realized that in order to intermingle the wow cultures, strong racial associations with different l ifestyles had to be overcome, and the combining of Hindu and Muslim dress was one important way to do this. Babul Faze describes how the emperor took the audacity, an unlined Indian coat with a slit skirt and tied at the left, and had it made with a round skirt and tied at the right. It was typical of Kafka to alter the form of a garment that was identified with or acceptable to the Hindu community.He probably planned to make the Jam acceptable to both Hindus and Muslims, though he was also conscious of the need to prevent misunderstandings. People could be recognized at a glance by the manner in which it was tied (to the left for Hindus and to the right for Muslims). It had been compulsory during the Sultanate period, and continued to be so under the early Mussels, for local rajas, maharajah, and cards to present themselves in the dress of the ruling court. This must have caused resentment. Saba's aggressive attempts to assimilate Hindu dress into the courtly code led to a greater sense of acceptance.A study of miniatures from his time gives some indication of the changing styles. Special items were created by the emperors themselves. Just as Kafka designed the Daschle, a pair of shawls stitched together so that there was no wrong side, Changer (reigned 1605-1627) designed a special coat known as nadir', which he mentions in his memoirs. Persian and Central Asian influences became far less important during this period. Garcia Sat women in their traditional dress and Jewelry. Ketch, Gujarat, India, 1982. Photograph by Asleep Domain. COUNTRIES OF SOUTH ASIA affluent but effete style was that of Outdo at Locknut.Though the dress formula remained the same?lama, angora, fairish pajama?its style became a trifle exaggerated. Angoras became much wider and trailed on the ground. Women's churchyard pajamas gave way to the fairish pajama, which was so voluminous that young pages were required to gather and carry them. The Kurt, a loose tunic made of fine cotton with ric h china, white-on-white embroidery, was introduced, as was the embroidered topic, or cap, often worn at a rakish angle. The story associated with the invention of the topic is that the innumerable women in the nab's harem could attract his attention only by creating an unusual cap.The Sherwin, a tight, calf-length coat, and cancan, a long, fitted coat for formal wear, came part of the dress of the Muslim elite. It continues to be worn in the early twenty-first century as formal wear by Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims. Kafka having married a Hindu princess, many Hindu traditions were introduced at court. Nor Johan was known as a great designer in her own right and was responsible for a range of innovations. Toward the end of sixteenth century, the Jam was being made of cloth so diaphanous as to allow the pants worn underneath it to be seen. This was a garment for summer wear.Most Restaurants' men, both upper- and middle-class, wore the court styles, including a variety of Jams; the most m oon of these reached below the knee. Another type was almost long enough to cover the pants underneath it entirely. Sometimes the Jam had full sleeves. Most women in northern India, however, were hesitant to copy exotic dress and continued to prefer the half-sleeved bodice (chili), the ankle-length skirt (gharry), and the head scarf (Odin/Danni). The upper garment was fully embroidered at the neck and on the sleeves and the tasseled ends of the transparent Odin were decorated with pomp-pomp of wool or silk.Pomp-pomp were also found on the strings tying armlets ND bracelets and on shoes, at the ends of tassels, and they were also worn in the hair. Wives of noblemen and officials and high-ranking ladies, bewitched by the beauty of the McHugh style, adopted the Jam with flowing skirt, tight pants, and Odin. The emperor Changer, himself a painter, possessed a fine aesthetic sense. From the range of garments seen in miniatures from his reign, it is obvious that he was a fastidious dresse r. He wore a colored turban with gold fringe at the top or a screech, a Jeweled, feathered turban.A pearl string encircled these turbans. His coats were invariably of brocaded silk. The paths were woven with butts, a floral pattern. The diaphanous Jam went out of fashion around 1610, thought to be unfit for public wear and used only by entertainers. During this time beards also went out of fashion; Changer followed the example of his father and ordered his courtiers to shave. Nor Johan, meanwhile, created her own dresses. The English diplomat Sir Thomas Roe was overwhelmed by the brilliance of the diamonds and pearls she wore. Dress under Shah Johan (reigned 1628-1658) became even more elegant and luxurious.The emperor's turban had, besides the Changer' string of pearls, a Jeweled aigrette and a further border of Jewels hanging from the sides. The turban itself was constructed from gold cloth. Shah Khan's one surviving coat boasted extraordinary embroidery. His sash, sandbank or pat , and slippers were also lavishly decorated. Rearrange (reigned 1658-1707) was a pious Muslim as well as an active, aggressive ruler. The overly luxurious life at court had fostered a certain laxity in government, which he tried to control, curbing opulence and reining in festive celebrations.Some historians have accused him of banning music and painting and prohibiting the wearing of silk at court. He could not have done so as he himself dressed magnificently. His turban was Jeweled, his Jam was elaborately patterned, and he wore pearl bracelets, armlets, precious necklaces, Jeweled pendants, several rings, and a beautiful Jade-handled dagger, which hung from a pendant clustered with pearls. During his reign, the skirt of the Jam was widened and lengthened, and turbans became voluminous. Rearrange revived the beard but limited its size by ordering that no Muslim should wear one longer than the width of four fingers.The eighteenth century saw the disintegration of the McHugh Empire under weak rulers ho were unable to control court intrigues and unrest. Regional courts became more powerful and attracted artists, craftsmen, and traders. One court known for an COLONIAL PERIOD The Portuguese, Dutch, French, and English arrived in India to ask for trading concessions from the McHugh rulers and were overwhelmed by their grandeur and wealth. According to Sir Thomas Roe, the English presented a sorry sight with their dull clothing, lack of entourage, and meager gifts, which they were afraid to present. Even the minor Indian princes were better e